My Life had stood - a Loaded Gun Essay Example for Free

My Life had stood a Loaded Gun Essay Emily Dickinson’s â€Å"My Life had stood a Loaded Gun† is a powerful poem that takes into account various thematic expressions. Its comprehensiveness in brevity is another essential feature of this poem. It symbolizes power and unconventional feminist urges on the art of the poetess. In this poem, Emily Dickinson finds an instrument adequate enough to render her need for fulfillment through absolute commitment to love’s service. The poem begins with a brilliant conceit. Fused from the ambiguous abstraction of life and the explicit concretion of loaded gun, it expresses the charged potential of the human being who remains dormant until â€Å"identified† into a conscious vitality. And after hat identification, we observe the start of a new poem i. e. the start of a new life. Historically, it was written in age when American society was torn with civil war. The symbol that Emily Dickenson has used is an essence of an experience. It is quite obvious that a universal insight that the poet tries to express in not obtained merely by imaginative wandering, it is based on concrete experiences. Emily Dickinson presents the same insight into the historical experiences of her time. The very first stanza symbolizes the paradox of finding oneself through losing oneself. It is rendered in the poem by one word: identity is claimed when someone claimed the gun as her own. The American civil war was also the process of finding ones own identity by losing ones own identity. The internal rivalries and petty identities were to be removed to achieve a national reconciliation. This national reconciliation ultimately brought the national identity. Although this process was on halt and stayed â€Å"in corners† for many decades till a day came. Now they â€Å"roam in Sovereign Woods†. So Emily Dickinson has epitomized a national experience. Now this â€Å"gun† is â€Å"foe of His Im deadly foe†. â€Å"His can be described in various connotations. â€Å"His† is emblem of nation state that is fully sovereign. â€Å"His† is an integrated society or the one who longs to be integrated after the pathos and miseries of Civil war. Poetess further emphasize that â€Å"None stir the second time -/ whom I lay a Yellow Eye -/ an emphatic Thumb†. All these gestures are for those who are internal or external antagonists to the new national experience. This poem has also captivated the feminist attention who has given it a new evaluative dimension. Some critics are of the view that thorough this poem, Emily has tried to present a woman that she was not primarily in the second half of the 19th century whereas other feminist critics holds the view that poem totally negates the feminine qualities and the main metaphor considers â€Å"everything [that]woman is not: cruel not pleasant, hard not soft, emphatic not weak, one who kills not one who nurtures. † (Bennet, 1986) But Emily Dickinson has provided a framework of power i. e. feminine power and established certain pattern on which women power can grow and has shown certain direction where women power can direct itself. It must be kept in mind that all the action verbs in the poem are not destructive or of insidious nature. It expresses powers to hunt speak† smile guard and kill. So this power has paradoxical nature and a balance mix of these powers is necessary as shown and done by Emily Dickinson. Furthermore, Miss Dickinson does show a longing for deadliness but in actuality it is only for safeguarding. Wrath is a part of her being but she does not let it go if not invoked or incited. So her aggression and anger and the consequences as a result of it (killing and deaths) are not unwomanly but are an extension of her very personality. These feelings are not uncommon but are surely unpredictable. In the second half of the poem, she is only providing guard to one who has helped her to get rid of her alienation and had blessed her with intimacy. Here Emily Dickinson seems conventional in her feminist approach that a woman can do everything unwomanly for the one who is her companion in true sense of the word. Christine Miller (1987) says in this regard that â€Å"In the second instance, the speaker prefers guarding the master to having shared his pillow, that is, to having shared intimacy with himprimarily sexual, one would guess from the general structure of the poem. † On the other hand, this poem expresses the agonies of a female poet that was restricted by her family and society to a narrow life devoid of any intellectual and/or literary independence. These social and familial compulsion produced rashness in Emily’s attitude. She was forced to produce art in seclusion and to it keep to herself only. So language becomes her only mean and tool to bear the torments of her intellectual beings. She embodies language as gun and is of the view that this loaded gun accompanied with her literary beings is fatal for socio-cultural compulsion against women. It provided her a sense of power and control. She further eulogizes language and considers it a safeguard to her literary being. And her language is enemy to al those traditions, norms, people and things who are against her poetical endeavors. This poem can further illustrate the conflicts between two classes with their interest. Although this conflict is not materialistic or monetary but it exists in the socio-cultural domain. One class adheres to the conventions and does not allow female members to express their view on any issue especially in the form of poetry whereas other lass are comprised of the intellectual beings who consider it their right to create and disseminate their thoughts and ideas in the literary form. This poem symbolizes the struggle of the latter class and demonstrates that they are more powerful than the convention-ridden society. The poem starts with an individual quest for his/her identity but it changed into a capitalized â€Å"We†. Now the concern of the poetess is no more individualistic and sentimental, rather it has been transformed into something collective, societal and concrete. The identities have been mingled up with each other. Both owner and the â€Å"owned† perform the same masculine activities. They are no more individual but become a part of the larger whole i. e. society. Overall the poem captures a variety of themes through various thematic expressions. Although the conclusion is disturbing but it has relevance to the thematic expressions as it tries to resolve the problem initiated in the first half. Powerlessness or even fear of that is death to the poetess has no other option but â€Å"to die† without powerlessness. Last stanza is not a moralistic commentary but is identification of a wider truth. Bennett, Paula. My Life a Loaded Gun: Dickinson, Plath, Rich, and Female Creativity. Boston: Beacon Press. 1986. Gilbert, Sandra M Gubar, Susan. The madwoman in the attic: the woman writer and the nineteenth-century literary imagination. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1979. Miller, Christanne. Emily Dickinson, a poets grammar. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. 1987. Smith, Martha Nell Loeffelholz, Mary. A companion to Emily Dickinson. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pubishers. 2008.

Slavery in Aristotles Works Essay example -- Aristotle Philosophy Sla

Before a serious investigation of any aspect of Aristotle’s political theories is undertaken, we must take a moment to acknowledge that many of the institutions and doctrines he defends have been repudiated in modern political thought. In fact many such institutions are appalling and simply morally wrong. One such institution is slavery. Aristotle argues in the Politics that slavery is just. No argument is needed to conclude that Aristotle made a terrible ethical and moral error in defending slavery. Further we must accept that the argument of the abolition of slavery was available to him as his defense of slavery is in response to critics who claim slavery is unjust. What sparks intriguing debate is questioning why Aristotle defended slavery, and whether there is a flaw in Aristotle’s logic in his defense of slavery, or if it is in fact internally consistent with the rest of his writings on justice and virtue. Some scholars have claimed that Aristo tle’s defense of slavery is a â€Å"battered shipwreck† of an argument. Yet, others maintain that the argument is in fact internally consistent. Any argument in favor of Aristotle’s defense of slavery is not in any way meant to morally support the institution of slavery; only that Aristotle used proper or unflawed logic in that argument. Likewise any argument against Aristotle’s defense is not a moral judgment toward slavery by this author. I am only concerned in how Aristotle builds his argument, and where flaws or contradictions may be located. Consideration of the context of slavery within Greek life of Aristotle’s time is also of importance. Any investigation or commentary on Aristotle’s slavery argument must first begin with the context of slave... ...s two separate, distinct entities. As intimated above, he more likely viewed them as a duality, that is, that they are part of one another. They were also, in the larger sense, part of the life of the household, as the household was part of the polis. However, this duality was strictly one way. It seems clear that he perceived the slave to be part of the master, not the other way around. But again, this was justified by Aristotle’s ultimate virtue, reason. To the extent that the master is seen as imbued with superior intelligence and understanding, it was his duty if not right to provide guidance to those less fortunate by birth. It is perhaps ironic that the justification of the benevolent dictatorship, so prevalent during imperialistic adventures by colonial countries, perhaps found its philosophical roots in the so-called democratic city-states of ancient Greece.

Japanese Hrm Essay

International Journal of Human Resource Management, Human Resource Management Journal, Organizational Dynamics and Asian Business and Management. In 2005 he co-edited a book entitled â€Å"Japanese Management: The Search for a New Balance between Continuity and Change† with Palgrave. Anne-Wil Harzing is Professor in International Management at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Her research interests include international HRM, expatriate management, HQsubsidiary relationships, cross-cultural management and the role of language in international business. She has published about these topics in journals such as Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, Strategic Management Journal, Human Resource Management, and Organization Studies. Her books include Managing the Multinationals (Edward Elgar, 1999) and International Human Resource Management (Sage, 2010). Since 1999 she also maintains an extensive website (www. harzing. com) with resources for international and cross-cultural management as well as academic publishing and bibliometrics. Abstract The objective of this chapter is to develop suggestions as to how Japanese multinational corporations (MNCs) might best make use of foreign, here specifically American and German, HRM practices in order to reform their own HRM model. These suggestions are based on a large scale empirical study, encompassing responses from more than 800 HR managers. The learning possibilities for Japanese companies from abroad are analyzed on two different levels: at headqu arters and at subsidiary level. One obvious difficulty we are presented with if we wish to answer the question what Japan can learn from ‘the West’ is the selection of countries that are representative of ‘the West’. In this study we limit our empirical research to the inspirations Japan might receive from the USA and Germany. This selection has some merit, in representing the largest and the third 2 3 largest developed economies in the world (with Japan being the second largest economy), and the economically dominant nations of North America and Europe (with Japan being the leading economy in Asia). In addition, the USA and Germany each embody the prime example of two of the three main varieties of market economies: the USA representing the free market economy of Anglo-Saxon countries and Germany the social market economy of continental Europe (with Japan embodying the third main variety of market economies, the government-induced market economy of East-Asia). Furthermore, according to Smith & Meiksins (1995: 243) the USA, Japan and Germany are most frequently referred to as role models, â€Å"as they provide ‘best practice’ ideals from which other societies can borrow and learn. Consequently, these country models have been subject to numerous comparative analysis (Thurow, 1992; Garten, 1993; Yamamura and Streeck, 2003; Pascha, 2004; Jacoby, 2005). As economic performance and growth paths vary over time the role of a ‘dominant’ economy also rotates among countries. In the 1950s, 1960s and most of the 1970s the American management style clearly was domi nant and a common expectation was that it would spread around the world, gaining application in many foreign countries. From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, this argument increasingly was applied to Japan (Mueller, 1994), and to a lesser extent and limited to the European context, to Germany (Albert, 1991; Thurow, 1992). Since the implosion of the Japanese economy, the stagnation of the German economy, and with the advent of globalization, the conventional wisdom over the last one and a half decades up to the current economic crisis has been that the American management model is particularly well suited to provide the necessary flexibility to cope with rapidly evolving economic and technological conditions. Consequently, the USA became again the dominant role model (Edwards et al. , 2005). This study employs a very carefully matched design in which we investigate the same three countries (Japan, the USA and Germany) as home and host countries. We not only study HRM practices at headquarters (HQ) in each of these three countries, but also the practices of the subsidiaries of MNCs from each of the three countries in the two other respective countries. As a result, we re able to compare the HRM practices of nine different groups of companies: HQ in Japan, the USA and Germany, subsidiaries of Japanese and German MNCs in the USA, subsidiaries of Japanese and American MNCs in Germany and subsidiaries of American and German MNCs in Japan. This design will enable us to disentangle the inspirations companies seek from abroad to a far greater extent than has been possible in other studies. 3 4 The structure of our analysis is separated into two main sections. The first main section describes empi rical results from HQ and the second main section depicts the situation at subsidiary level. For each of the two main sections, first the context of existing research is summarized. Subsequently, the methodology of the empirical research is described. Findings are then presented and subsequently discussed. Finally, suggestions are made as to how the Japanese might best make use of foreign HRM policies to reform their own HRM practices and ultimately improve competitiveness. Research context As mentioned above, the Japanese HRM model has often been recognized as a key factor to the rise of the Japanese economy, particularly during the 1980s (see for example Inohara, 1990). However, the same Japanese HRM which until recently has been much celebrated in the West, and presented as a role-model to be learned from (see for example Vogel, 1979; Ouchi, 1981; Peters and Waterman, 1982; Bleicher, 1982; Hilb, 1985), is now increasingly viewed as outmoded, and necessitating substantial reform (Frenkel, 1994; Smith, 1997; Yoshimura and Anderson, 1997; Crawford, 1998; Horiuchi, 1998; Ornatowski, 1998; El Kahal, 2001; Pudelko, 2005, 2007). Others, however, continue to stress its inherent strengths and warn against significant change (Kono and Clegg, 2001; Ballon, 2002; Ballon, 2006). On the other hand, American understanding of HRM has traditionally been viewed by Japanese managers with skepticism. It is regarded as contradicting in many ways the broad concept of ‘respect for people’ (Kono and Clegg, 2001) and the aim of ‘human resource development’ (Ballon, 2002) that is ingrained into the Japanese management philosophy. In particular, the idea of defining the employees of a company as ‘resources’ (instead of members of the company ‘family’) that need to be managed (instead of ‘developed’) runs contrary to the key concepts of traditional Japanese HRM. However, in response to the deep crisis of the Japanese economy and management model, which has lasted for more than a decade now, it is clear that some shift toward Western management principles is taking place 4 5 (Frenkel, 1994; Ornatowski, 1998; El Kahal, 2001; Matanle, 2003). Thus, mirroring the economic growth patterns, adoption of Japanese HRM principles seems in the USA to be largely an issue of the past, whereas the question of adoption of American HRM policies is more current in Japan than ever. The key issue in Japan seems to be to find a new balance between the continuation of traditional (human resource) management principles and changes inspired largely by Western or more specifically American strategies. Regarding finally the specific German understanding of (human resource) management, it has to be concluded that this is a subject of no significant importance in Japanese business research, if it is considered at all (Pudelko, 2000a). Methodology Data collection and sample It may be noted from this brief review that existing literature in this field is in some respects inconclusive or somewhat contradictory. Nor has it generally been informed by empirical examination of HR managers’ own views on cross-national adoption processes. As this group might be expected to constitute the chief change agent, empirical insight appears in this context all the more important. Accordingly, this chapter provides data on the perceptions of HR managers from three different countries on the possibility of learning from each other. In this task, a quantitative approach seemed to be the most appropriate. The analysis is therefore based on empirical data which have been drawn together from an extensive survey (Pudelko, 2000a-c). The heads of HR departments from the 500 largest corporations of Japan – and for comparative reasons – the USA and Germany were selected as units of investigation. It was assumed that the heads of HR departments would have the highest degree of experience, knowledge and vision with regard to the issues being investigated, due to their senior positions within corporate hierarchies.

Risk Management of Technology and Maintenance Failures in...

Risk Management of Technology and Maintenance Failures in the Context of Aviation Industry Individual Assignment Managing Processes, Systems, and Projects Elective Pathway: Managing the Project-based Environment Balazs B. Varga EFT11 Date: 06/02/2012 Student id: 19700989 Word Count: 1705 Table of Contents Introduction 3 Incident root cause failure analysis 3 A. Aircraft aging and the limitations of fail-safe design 3 B. Safety by design and the failure of damage tolerance 3 C. Human errors and organizational failures 4 Recommendations 4 Reflections 5 Works Cited 7 Appendix 8 Introduction On April 28, 1988, Aloha Airlines flight 243 underwent an explosive decompression in its passenger cabin at feet 24,000. Although the†¦show more content†¦Although Aloha followed the manufacturers advised general Maintenance Planning Programme, its management did not implement the specific SBs. Consequently, during the standard inspection activities sporadic cracks and first signs of panel bond disintegration were not identified within the safe crack growth period. It has been debated whether the standard maintenance programme (including four level of Checks, A-B-C-D, at different level of inspection detail and frequency) could have revealed the specific failures in question. The answer is negative: Aloha`s on-ground-examinations were made mainly during night, with limited visual inspection conditions and alertness to identify sporadic rivet cracks. (National Transportation Safety Board, 1989) In sum, the aircraft damage tolerance had become seriously limited which resulted in the catastrophic wear-out failure. C. Human errors and organizational failures As highlighted before, the investigation identified several types of human failures, including inspection errors and violations of operational procedures. According to Hobbs, maintenance management is critical to ensure aviation safety, and improper maintenance contributes as primary cause to a significant (7-14 %) proportion of aviation accidents and incidents. (Hobbs, 2008) However, individual failures in maintenance activities are usually not the root-causes of failures but affected by the workShow MoreRelatedSafety Management Systems In The Aviation Industry11572 Words   |  47 PagesTopic Learning Guide Aviation Safety Systems TOPIC 2 SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Safety Management Systems in the Aviation Industry Introduction This topic area covers the second and third sessions. 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A Dutch KLM 747 and an American Pan Am 747 crashed into each other at a Spanish airport in the Canary Islands resulted in 583 death and a extensive mediaRead MoreRisk Management7514 Words   |  31 PagesHeinz†Peter  Berg  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Ã‚  RISK  MANAGEMENT:  PROCEDURES,  METHODS  AND  EXPERIENCES        RTA  #  2(17)  Ã‚   (Vol.1)  2010,  June  Ã‚      RISK MANAGEMENT: PROCEDURES, METHODS AND EXPERIENCES Heinz-Peter Berg †¢ Bundesamt fà ¼r Strahlenschutz, Salzgitter, Germany e-mail: hberg@bfs.de ABSTRACT Risk management is an activity which integrates recognition of risk, risk assessment, developing strategies to manage it, and mitigation of risk using managerial resources. Some traditional risk managements are focused on risks stemmingRead MoreOutline Of A Sigma And Lean Six Sigma1942 Words   |  8 Pagesknown in the industry. Six Sigma: ÏÆ' is a statistical term for that measures the deviation from perfection. It determines the capability of a process. 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Testing Ourselves And The World Around Us - 1089 Words

From the time we are very small, we are assessors. We are constantly testing ourselves and the world around us, looking for information that will help us keep moving forward, keep learning and keep growing. Little by little, we begin to make sense of our environment by experimenting with what we can do and what we can’t†¦yet; what effect the objects and substances and creatures we encounter may have on us; what those things are. Does that yellow crayon taste as good as it looks? Can I let go and do it myself, or will I fall down again? Does the doggy feel nice to touch? Always testing, sometimes falling short, sometimes reaching new heights, and figuring out when to keep trying and when to let well enough alone. We are continuously testing, and continuously learning, and occasionally amazing ourselves. How, then, does testing suddenly become intimidating and stressful and make us question our worth until we can no longer enjoy the process of learning for fear of failure? When did testing stop being an exciting experiment and become a judgment? How do we turn testing and assessment back into tools for exploration and learning? Mere numbers don’t give us those answers. Phyllis Tashlik, director of the Center for Inquiry in Teaching and Learning, New York Performance Standards Consortium states that â€Å"From Secretary of Education Arne Duncan to state commissioners, chancellors, mayors, and the press, the language of quantitative measures has dominated the â€Å"conversation.†Show MoreRelatedGenetic Testing And Prenatal Testing965 Words   |  4 Pagesgenetic testing focused on the topic of prenatal testing to determine disabilities. We have come a long way in discovering a lot about ourselves related to anthropology, but also to help us learn about ourselves in the future. We are able to do some extraordinary things with technology to take preventative measures with diseases, cancers, disabilities and possibly even structure a human one day. I picked prenatal testing and disabilities to discuss how unethical it is to do genetic testing beforeRead MoreAn Formal Study Of Assessments1322 Words   |  6 PagesEven before beginning the formal study of assessments, it is clear that there are many serious problems with the ways in which stu dents, teachers, and schools are assessed in this country. Studies have shown us what needs to be done, the research all points to the same conclusion – we are doing it wrong. Despite the fact that assessment, informally, is a consistent part of our everyday lives, we still place so much weight on standardized methods which provide no context, few allowances for socioeconomicRead MoreSocial Engineering And Part Of The History1224 Words   |  5 Pages Social Engineering Abdulelah Almubarak March 24, 17 IASC-1100 In this paper the discussion goes around the main definition of social engineering and part of the history of social engineering. 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In my opinion the acquisition of knowledge can be achieved through the philosophy of Cognitivism because this philosophy calls us to interact with one another in order to gain knowledge of ourselves and others which can ultimately make us more awareRead MoreDantes Response To Dante : The Character Of Dante732 Words   |  3 Pagesin which we might see ourselves while also building this character into an unexpected â€Å"hero.† When Dante first encounters trouble, he too is quite troubled. Though reading something like the inscription â€Å"abandon all hope ye who enter here† (18) wouldn’t exactly bring joy into your life. Much like in life, when it has no direction, we find ourselves spinning in metaphorical circles. With so the constant need for things such as food, water, and comfort, we still pride ourselves in being self-sufficientRead MoreCreativity Is Essential For Success1118 Words   |  5 Pagesperceptions of the world and keeps life fulfilling and interesting to us. 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Importance Of Personal Writing - 970 Words

I cant believe this is only my 3rd post. I have truly done an awful job at updating this. I meant to write these posts bi-weekly, but instead Ive failed to get them done on even a monthly basis. Oh well. If not updating my blog is my biggest regret sense being here, I can live with that. Indeed, I think it is my biggest regret. Perhaps I couldve seen more, perhaps I couldve spent more afternoons in Regents Park, but I mightve done a thousand things more and still have felt as satisfied as I do right now. Ive seen art works by Matisse, Picasso, and Monet, Ive climbed Arthurs Seat and seen the lights Edinburgh in the dead of night, Ive seen a football match (of both varieties!) at Wembley, Ive had an English breakfast (avoid the†¦show more content†¦Too often we think we live for the big moments, the ones where we pull out our cameras, the ones where we gasp at some marvel that has caught our eye. This is only half of the truth. Though these moments create memories, those mome nts that may seem mundane to the outside create memories just as lasting, just as meaningful. Too often we take these moments for granted. Everyone does it, they are so numerous that they seem unending, unimportant at the time, but all things come to an end, even these rituals we have. One day I will graduate, if things go smoothly, and D Hall, basketball, karaoke, these things will end, and I will miss them. I have missed them. I look forward to having them again, if only for a time. In the same breath, I find myself thinking over the mundane moments Ive had here in London, discussions on the tube, my time in the office talking to my colleagues, studying under the trees at Regents Park, making runs to Tesco. I have enjoyed theseShow MoreRelatedPersonal Importance Of Writing863 Words   |  4 PagesEvery person has their own viewpoint of what a good writing is. 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Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Within Learning Environments

Question: Describe about the Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Within Learning Environments? Answer: Introduction Organizational Citizenship behavior is one of the most studied topics in the research field of Organizational Behaviour. OCBs concept was first coined in 1980s by Organ and Bateman and then from there onwards a number of researchers and scholars strengthened and refined the concept with the changing times and the changing needs of organisations. Organization Citizenship behavior basically defines individuals behavior which are beneficial for the organization (S.Suresh and P. Venkatammal, 2010). And omission of OCB cannot be treated with punishment since it is a personal choice. Earlier Organ, the researcher who coined the term Organisational Citizenship Behaviour had coined 2 attributes of OCB but later on in 1998 he went on to add 3 more attributes to make it a total of five attributes. The attributes as defined by Organ in 1998 are: courtesy, altruism, sportsmanship, conscientiousness and civic virtue. As mentioned earlier that OCB is a personnel choice and omission of OCB cannot lead to punishment but as Organ says that the implementation of OCB will not only increase the efficiency of the employees but will also boost the organization. Organisational Citizenship if implemented in an organization increases its effectiveness and gives the organization a lead from other organisations and helps the organization to reach its business goals. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and its Dimensions As Organ says that OCB accounts for work-related behaviors, which help the organization, and in its effective functioning. OCB also helps the employees to move above their minimum role and perform to their best that is again beneficial for the organization (Khaola, 2008). During the early days of research into OCB there were mainly two dimensions as defined by Organ which are as follows: General Compliance: An employee doing its job perfectly and doing what he/she should be supposed to do. Altruism: this means helping others to achieve their goals. These two dimensions were proposed by Batemand and Organ in 1983. Later on as the researches went on Organ himself identified five dimensions to Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. These are as follows: Altruism: helping others to achieve their goals. Civic Virtue: This means that the information of the organization should remain inside the organization and should not move out of the organization. Conscientiousness: This means to comply with the organizations norms and regulations. Courtesy: This means that one should consult with others in the organization before taking important steps and decisions (LePine, Erez and Johnson, 2002). Sportsmanship: This means not to create rivalry within the organization and support other employees without complaining about the trivial matters. Later on Organ, himself divided the dimensions into 3 parts, namely: helping, courtesy and Conscientiousness. After Organ, it was Williams and Anderson who in 1991 divided OCB into two main types: Organisational Citizenship behavior directed towards an individuals which will help the organization grow andOrganisational Citizenship behavior directed towards the organization, which will benefit the organization. Organisational Citizenship behavior directed towards individuals: OCBI means the organizational citizenship behavior which directly benefits the particular individual increasing his / her efficiency but then ultimately benefitting the organization on the whole. Podsakoff in the year 2000 labeled OCBI as meaning to voluntarily helping other individuals and other employees with their problems (Podsakoff, Ahearne and MacKenzie, 1997). There have many studies which try to define OCBI but almost all of them relate to the ones proposed by Williams and Anderson. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour directed towards Organisation (OCBO) The second dimension according to Williams and Anderson is the Organisational behavior directed towards the organization. In OCBO the organizational citizenship behavior is directed towards the while organisation rather than specific members or employees of the organisation. Podsakoff called OCB as Organisation compliance as it is done by internalizing the organisations norms and rules and policies. While Williams and Anderson defined OCBO shortly as behavior which benefits the organisation directly (Podsakoff, Ahearne and MacKenzie, 1997). OCB mainly includes notice prior to absence of work and adhering to the rules and regulations of the organisation informally (Rasheed, Jehanzeb and Rasheed, 2013). The research in OCB has increased rapidly and dramatically in the past decade there is a bit of consensus among the researchers about the internal factors of Organisational citizenship behaviour. In 1995 Ryan and Organ did a meta-analysis of OCB and found out that there were several dispositional and attitudinal predictors such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction etc., while studies done by others pointed out to many other factors and predictors such as personality and personal variables, leadership, social exchange theory etc. According to all the researches and studies Organisational citizenship behaviour is a personality trait, a response to the motivation-based environment of the workplace and a response to the fellow employees and the seniors in the organization (ORGAN and RYAN, 1995). Thus OCB has been identified by various researchers as an indicator which indicates the performance of the employees which goes beyond the formal duties to include effectiveness, service quality etc. Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour During the early day researches the antecedents of OCB were focused on dispositions, leaders supportiveness and the attitude of the employees (Lambert, Hogan and Griffin, 2007). And during the past decade many distinct variables have been researched upon to find out more antecedents of Organisational citizenship Behavior. Some most common OCBs antecedents are as follows:Perceptions of justice in the organizationJob satisfaction of employeeTask characteristicsPersonality characteristicsLeadership behavior i.e. the behavior of the leaders towards the organisation and the employee. Job satisfaction is considered the most important of the antecedents by most of the researchers. As mentioned earlier about the meta-analysis done by Ryan and Organ, they did a meta-analysis of 28 researches and studies and they concluded that job satisfaction is one of the most important antecedent of OCB since job satisfaction is the thing which will keep the employee working with its efficiency and giving its best to the organisation which will help the organisation grow as a whole (ORGAN and RYAN, 1995). Even they concluded the relation (job satisfaction OCB the relation job-satisfaction and in-role performance. They suggested that there were some other antecedents which were as comparable as job satisfaction such as organisation commitment, fairness in the organisation and support from the leadership and the seniors in the organisation. When talking about the personal antecedents, Podsakoff along with Paine, MacKenzie and Bachrach in 2000, identified agreeableness, conscientiousness and positive and negative affectivity were also important antecedents for OCB (LePine, Erez and Johnson, 2002). Conscientiousness has been identified as the most important antecedent that is the most strongly linked to the compliance dimension of Organization citizenship behaviour. While there are also arguments that the personality traits are weaker representation as compared to attitudinal predictors. Certain task characteristics were found to have a relation with several dimensions such as the task characteristics such as routinisation, feedback and intrinsic satisfaction are deeply related to the dimensions of altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, sportsmanship and courtesy. Intrinsic satisfaction and task feedback have been found to have positive relation with the OCB while task routinisation has a negative relationship with OCB. Talking about Leadership behaviors, several studies have suggested that leadership behaviors are also important predictors for OCB and leadership behaviors are of mainly four categories: 1. Transactional leadership behaviour2. Transformational leadership behavior3. Behaviour involving leader-member exchange theory4. Behaviour involving path-goal theory. Transformational leadership behaviors include high performance expectations, high goal expectations, intellectual stimulation, articulating a vision etc. that have a positive relationship with the Organs OCB containing five dimensions (Khaola, 2008). Transactional leadership behaviour includes non-contingent punishment behaviour and contingent reward behavior, which again have deep relation with Organs OCB dimensions. While the path-goal theory of leadership behaviour includes leader role clarification and supportive leadership role which are positively linked or related to Organs OCB dimensions. Talking about the last leadership behaviour antecedent, which is the leader-exchange theory, Podsakoff found out that this has a positive relation with the altruism dimension of Organs Organisation citizenship behavior (Podsakoff, Ahearne and MacKenzie, 1997). Conclusion: Organizational behaviour has ben of utmost importance for all the organisation since it defines how well an organisation will perform. The organisation performance and overall growth depend on the organizational behavior (S.Suresh and P. Venkatammal, 2010). And Organisation Citizenship behaviour is an important aspect of Organisational behaviour and researches and studies on OCB have been increasing rapidly since more and more organisations are getting to understand the importance of OCB for their employee as well as their organisation. The definition of OCB as given by Organ goes like this: OCB is not based on formal reward system, it is rather a personal choice, a choice on the individual, behaviour which promotes and ensures the effective working of the organisation, it cannot be forced upon an employee, but OCB is desirable among the employees of and organisation. Many studies have taken place in the United States on Organisational citizenship behavior on the lines of Organs work but when talking about the global perspective, a very little has been done throughout the world. Organizational behaviour is discretionary and is not part of the formal requirements for an employee but it is desired since it not only improves the individuals efficiency but on the whole also benefits the organization (Podsakoff, Ahearne and MacKenzie, 1997). Successful organisations want employees who can do more than their normal job duties and this is where OCB comes into place. References Bukhari, Z., 2009. Key Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) in the Banking Sector of Pakistan.IJBM, 3(12). Khaola, P., 2008. Organisational citizenship behaviour within learning environments.The International Journal of Management Education, 7(1), pp.73-80. Lambert, E., Hogan, N. and Griffin, M., 2007. Being the Good Soldier: Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Commitment Among Correctional Staff.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(1), pp.56-68. LePine, J., Erez, A. and Johnson, D., 2002. The nature and dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior: A critical review and meta-analysis.Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(1), pp.52-65. ORGAN, D. and RYAN, K., 1995. A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW OF ATTITUDINAL AND DISPOSITIONAL PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR.Personnel Psychology, 48(4), pp.775-802. Podsakoff, P., Ahearne, M. and MacKenzie, S., 1997. Organizational citizenship behavior and the quantity and quality of work group performance.Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(2), pp.262-270. Rasheed, A., Jehanzeb, K. and Rasheed, M., 2013. An Investigation of the Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: Case of Saudi Arabia.IJPS, 5(1). S.Suresh, and P. Venkatammal, 2010. Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 36(2), pp.276-286. Snape, E. and Redman, T., 2010. HRM Practices, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, and Performance: A Multi-Level Analysis.Journal of Management Studies. Somech, A. and Drach-Zahavy, A., 2004. Exploring organizational citizenship behaviour from an organizational perspective: The relationship between organizational learning and organizational citizenship behaviour.Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(3), pp.281-298.